Compare and Contrast two Theories of Major Depression

Compare and Contrast two Theories of Major Depression Depressive disorders are the most frequently diagnosed psychopathological disorders; the two most common forms of depression are unipolar and bipolar disorders. This essay will focus on unipolar disorder and for simplicity, will be referred to as depression. Even though social factors evidently contribute to depression, it makes more sense that such disorder should have biological basis. Hammen, 1997 proposed four different reasons to support such belief: Symptoms of depression include physical changes, depression appears to run in families, success of medication and particular kinds of illness/injury/drugs could give rise to depression. This essay will explore the similarities and differences between the biological and psychological explanations of depression, specifically looking at neurotransmitter dysfunction (biochemical factors), genetic factors (twin/adoption studies), Becks theory of depression (cognitive explanations), Freuds theory (psychodynamic explanation) and life event s (socio-cultural factors). One biological account for depression is that biochemical factors are involved; the view indicates that depression is caused by a deficiency of neurotransmitters; norepinephrine and serotonin. Norepinephrine levels in the brain are often low in depressed patients. In addition, post mortem studies have revealed an increased density of norepinephrine receptors in the brains of depressed suicide victims (Bunny and Davis, 1965). On the other hand, the link between low synaptic serotonin level and depression is supported by the fact that the cerebrospinal fluid in depressed patients holds a smaller amount of a major serotonin by-product, demonstrating a lower level of serotonin in the brain (McNeal and Cimbolic, 1986). Moreover, Delgado (1994) demonstrated low serotonin levels was associated with depressive symptoms by giving depressed patients (on antidepressants) a special diet which lowered their level of tryptophan, one of the precursors of serotonin; patients reported depressive symp toms which disappeared when their diet returned to normal. Although the biological explanations of depression have received more research support, the psychological explanations have also been significant. It is likely that, the biological factors cause the development of depression, while the psychological factors maintain the disorder. It is also likely that two or more factors are needed for such disorder to develop. People may become depressed only if they have low levels of serotonin, feel helpless and blame themselves for the negative events that happen to them (Comer, 2003). An alternative explanation for depression is Becks, 1967 (cited in Davey, 2008) cognitive theory of depression, a psychological account. He proposed that depressed individuals feel the way they do since their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations of the world; this is caused by acquiring a negative schema during childhood. Such negative schemas are triggered whenever an individual encounters a new situation similar to the original conditions in which the schemas were learnt. Negative schemas are also subject to certain cognitive biases in thinking; both negative schemas and cognitive biases maintain the negative triad, a negative view of one self, the world and the future. Other cognitive explanations include the learned helplessness theory (failing to control unpleasant experiences) and the hopelessness theory (negative expectations of the future). Both explanations differ in terms of treatment. Treatment stemming from the biochemical account (antidepressants) treats the symptoms and not the ultimate cause with only about 65% effectiveness; in contrast the cognitive accounts are associated with successful therapies for depression. Butler and Beck (2000) concluded that about 80% of adults benefited from cognitive therapy which aims to treat the cause of the disorder. Becks cognitive therapy was more successful than drug therapy and had a lower relapse rate, supporting the proposition that depression indeed has a cognitive basis. In support, Wu, Buchsbaum, Hershey, Johnson and Bunney (1999) demonstrated that uncontrollable negative events (learned helplessness) led to changes in norepinephrine and serotonin levels; further illustrating how by treating such biochemical changes, the ultimate cause of depression is not dealt with. Despite these differences in treatment, a similarity between the treatments is the effects are not imme diate. It takes a number of weeks before the effects of drugs (antidepressants) on depression can be noticed regardless of the fact that antidepressants raise serotonin levels immediately; low levels of neurotransmitters therefore cannot be the straightforward explanation for depression (Kennett, 1999 cited in Cardwell Flanagan, 2004). Moreover, cognitive therapy sessions are taken over weeks, even months before results are noticed. An additional similarity is that not everyone who suffers from depression is helped by serotonin-based drugs and cognitive therapy (individual differences), suggesting that there are other causes for the disorder. In terms of biochemical factors, it is not clear why some people become depressed when their serotonin or norepinephrine levels are low, whereas others with low levels of serotonin or norepinephrine remain depression free. Freud, 1917 (cited in Strachey, 1961) established a further psychological account for depression. He described how, when a loved one is lost, there is a phase of mourning however for some, this phase never seems to end; they continue to exist in a state of melancholia (Freuds term for depression). Freud also believed that we unconsciously harbour negative feelings towards those we love and when we lose those we love, these negative feelings are turned on ourselves. In some cases, we continue a pattern of self-abuse and self-blame; according to this view, depression is anger turned against oneself. A further psychological account is life events (socio-cultural factors). Brown and Harris (1978) studied depressed women in London and found two situations which appeared to increase a persons helplessness to life events. First was the presence of long-term difficulties and secondly the existence of vulnerability factors. Dohrenwend, Shrout, Link, Martin and Skokol (1986) supported this by claiming that depressed patients characteristically experience higher level of negative life events in the year before a depressive episode. The psychological accounts reject the view that the disorder is caused by genetics and brain chemistry but by life events the environment. Similarly, the biological accounts reject the view that depression is caused by psychological factors; instead it favours the idea that the disorder is caused by a deficiency of neurotransmitters, neurocognitive impairment and genetics. Freud focused on the relationship between an individual and a loved one whereas the genetic explanation ignores the impact of the environment. The genetic explanation is an alternative biological account; the view considers that certain individuals have certain genes which predisposes an individual to the disorder. Moreover the disorder can be inherited; as a result of this we would anticipate to find that relatives (i.e. twins) have similar chances of developing depression. Studies of twins have consistently found concordance rates of around 46% for monozygotic twins compared to 20% for dizygotic twins (McGuffin, 1996) suggesting depression has a substantial inheritable component. Further evidence comes from adoption studies; Wender in 1986 studied the biological relations of adopted people who had been hospitalised for serious depression and found there was a much higher incidence of depression in these relations than those of a non-depressed control group. The evidence for biological factors in the onset and progress of depression is strong but not as strong as that for schizophrenia; as with schizophrenia, many of these biological factors (i.e. genes, biochemical factors) are not ultimate causes and may be only peripherally or indirectly involved. A fundamental difference between the biological accounts (biochemical and genetic factors) and the psychological accounts (Freuds theory and life events), is that the biological accounts are based on an internal origin of depression within an individual, both our genes and our biochemical levels are within us, whilst Freuds theory and life events are focused on external events from our bodies (i.e. the loss of a loved one). A similarity between the biological accounts and Freuds theory is both are determinist, indicating that depression is down to factors outside our control (genes, biochemistry, subconscious, thoughts). Some would argue that depression is developed due to factors within our control (i.e. way we think), the approach Becks cognitive theory of depression takes. Additionally, Becks theory of depression is not determinist; it explains how depression is down to our thinking and how we have the ability to change these thoughts, especially through successful cognitive thera py. A similarity between the biological accounts, Freuds and Becks theory is that they can all be argued to be reductionist. The biochemical and genetic explanation does not take into account significant psychological stressors (i.e. life events), making the theories over simplistic when considered as an explanation of depression; reducing the explanation of depression down to biological factors alone. However, research has shown that our environment can affect factors such as our biochemistry (Wu et al., 1999) suggesting that other factors do in fact play a part in the development of depression. The fact that these explanations do not consider both environmental and cognitive factors as reasons to the development of depression is a negative criticism. Both Freuds and Becks theory of depression reduce depression down to the loss of a loved one and the way we think, in addition both theories do not consider other possible factors such as genes. A further similarity is that, all accounts f or depression do not provide a complete explanation of the disorder, ignoring important factors which have evidently shown to influence the development of depression. It is perhaps best to consider an approach which incorporates both biological and psychology factors in explaining the development of depression. The diathesis-stress model indicates that there is a genetic vulnerability to the disorder but this triggered when an individual has been exposed to a stressful life event. Both these factors are necessary for such disorder to develop, this is way not all children (twins) with depression develop the disorder and why the concordance rate for the disorder in monozygotic twins is nothing like 100%. To conclude, both biological and psychological accounts are related to some successful therapies. They are interdependent in so far as it is clear that some people are vulnerable to becoming depressed and for example, life events may trigger the onset of depression. Both explanations are determinist since they suggest that internal/external events cause depression; differences between both the biological and psychological explanations can be found b y looking at specific accounts, and for example, looking at the lack or strength of research evidence and the implications.

Formation and Organization of the Athalassic Salt Lakes of Australia :: Geology Research Papers

Formation and Organization of the Athalassic Salt Lakes of Australia Preface Upon my acceptance to the Biomes of Australia 2003 program – a biologically-oriented summer experience in the â€Å"Land Down Under† that, for the 6th consecutive year, has been organized by Dr. Warren Dolphin of Iowa State University – I was presented with the task of writing a research paper on an aspect of the Australian landscape. Anxious to apply my new knowledge of geomorphology and desiring to investigate an ecosystem from the holistic perspective of an environmental scientist, I settled upon investigating the formative elements of athalassic (inland) salt lakes and how they determine the ecological structure of salt lake playas. The research summarized in this report is an assimilation of fragmented literature on the subject and represents an attempt to integrate those pieces for better clarity. I believe that my travel companions, to whom I am obligated to present this information, shall derive a greater understanding of Australian salt lake systems f rom a broad examination of the subject than from an intensely focused analysis of but a single component. Although the information that I present is indeed broad in scope, the reader must realize that it falls short of comprehensiveness. The shear volume of literature prohibits designing anything other than a series of encyclopedias to encompass the full complexity of salt lake systems. It is my hope, rather, that this paper elicits the reader’s curiosity and prompts further reading on this fascinating area. The introduction draws a necessary overview of salt lakes in basic geographic and geologic terms. Part I examines the processes of basin and lake formation, first the physical mechanisms of creation and secondly the concentration of ions within the basin. Part II explores the effects of salinity and other chemical characteristics on lake fauna. Part III explains how climatic adjustments determine the composition of vegetation in and around salt lake basins. Together, these pieces should provide some insight to a central question of this paper: What physical and chemical characteristics of athalassic salt lakes, as determined by the regional climatic and hydrologic regime, determine local ecologies? Abstract The athalassic salt lakes of Australia arose during the continent’s shift to the present arid/semi-arid climate regime. Some, such as Lake Eyre are ephemeral and hold water only after infrequent and irregular rains; others flood intermittently or permanently contain water.

Decision Making Essay

The decision making approach that will be employed by the organization is based on a model where all members of the organization will be involved. A decision is made when the organization is faced with some problems in its operations or when the organization plans to redraw its operation so as to plan for the future. The top management, after realizing the need for change on the specified areas that may either be controversial or whose effect is organization wide, instigates a research that will involve all the members of the organization including the investors. The research must be through in that it should analyze the internal operational environment, the industry conditions, market trends and predicts any change in the environment. Moreover, the research must accurately determine the compatibility of the range of opinions and thus solution to the organizational culture and their profitability or effects on the organization productivity. The findings must be presented before the board of management who will ascertain the viability of the solutions and choose the one that best address the needs of the organization and is sustainable with respect to its resources. The board will at all time be constituted of all stakeholders in the organization including departmental representatives, departmental heads, top managers, trade union representatives and investors each of whom have equal right of expressing their points of view. The top management is charged wit the responsibility of evaluating the recommendations made by the research team and ensuring that the whole organization implements the decisions passed. The organization understands that in any community where the members are actively involved in any form of economic or social undertaking that involves their interaction and varied output, problems must always be present. The organization adopts the Osborne-Parnes problem solving methodology that is based on creativity. The first stage in the solution of a problem is the determination of the goals and challenges that the organization works for. After which the management is charged with the responsibility of instructing the research teams to find all data, facts and emotional responses involved. The data and findings will help in bringing out the problems that will affect the achievement of the goals. In clarification of the problem the two main concerns are the needs that should be addressed and the problems that should be focused on. The decision in this phase is based on the perceived impact of the problems as per the research findings. The next stage is the generation of ideas which involves all stakeholders in the organization. The research department and teams are responsible for the implementation of the idea generation process. The main concern at this stage is finding out all the solutions to the problems without any consideration of their effectiveness. The main methodology in the generation of ideas is brainstorming which is implemented in groups. The next stage is implemented by the board of management with the help of the research teams. The main concern at this stage is finding out how the solutions can be made better. Pareto analysis is used in determination of the best method though the implementation of a cause effect analysis will also aid in determining a range of good solutions to the problems. The last phase is a decision making process as the whole organization takes step that are aimed at implementation of the solutions. The decision making model is adopted in this last phase. ii. Behavior The organization appreciates the effects of behavior on the operations and other aspects such as investor confidence and the respect the organization will receive from all in the organization. The employees and all stakeholders will at all time endeavors to uphold a code of conduct that is respectful of their colleagues and all that they may relate to in the course of their activities. The main methodology that will be used in the assessment of the organization employees’ behavior is based on Osborne-Parnes approach. The methodology involves the creation of a code of behavior that all employees are expected to follow. Research is then undertaken to establish the organization behavior with the aim of establishing its relationship and association to the code of behavior. Conformance and other areas of divergence are accurately determined and their exact nature established. The causes of the divergence must be determined through wide research and the results presented to either the top management or to the department heads depending on the level of the investigation and who instigated it. The impact of the diversion on the end consumer of the services and product is determined and the impact on the organization’s operation and thus productivity noted. The problem solving mechanism is then applied to solve the area of divergence and any anomalies in the code of behavior corrected.

How to Convert Temperatures From Kelvin to Celsius

This example problem illustrates the method to convert temperatures from Kelvin to Celsius. Kelvin To Celsius (K to C) Problem: What is the temperature in  °C of a 256 K object? Solution: The conversion formula for  °C to K isTC (TK) - 273TC 256 - 273TC -17  °C Answer: The temperature in Celsius of a 256 K object is -17  °C. Temperature Conversion Formulas